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Different dialects in the Arabic-speaking world

Arabic dialects, also called colloquial or colloquial, refer to non-standard dialects of the Arabic language, unlike classical Arabic, where there is usually a linguistic duplication between its speakers, so classical Arabic represents the higher dialect of high standing, and local dialects represent the lower dialect. There is great diversity in the Arabic dialects, with varying degrees of mutual clarity, and there are great differences in vocabulary, phonetics, and grammar. The Arabic dialects are classified into several dialect families by region, which are the dialects of the Arabian Peninsula, the Levantine, the Maghreb, the Nile, and the Iraqi, however the dialects in the same region differ according to location, lifestyle (between civilians, villagers and Bedouins), religion, ethnicity, and tribe.

The Arabic dialects before the Islamic period were varied and differing in vocabulary, styles and structures. Nevertheless, there was a unified dialect used in writing poems, covenants and charters (whoever reads Muallaqat Antara ibn Shaddad al-Absi did not find it difficult to understand it or not difficult to write it, which was written about 1500 years ago). The unified dialect continued after the advent of Islam, which is the dialect in which the Holy Qur’an was revealed (the unified language is known as the common language, as it was known to some ancient Arab scholars and modern researchers as the Quraish dialect). There were several dialects represented in the common Arabic language, including the dialect of Tamim, Asad, Qais, Bakr, Gulb, Madhaj, and the tribes of Yemen. However, they can understand each other easily, but it is difficult to read.

Most of the Arabic dialects (especially outside the Arabian Peninsula) arose after the Islamic conquests, as a result of the mixing of the dialects of Arab Muslims with the local population speaking other languages, and the dialects were born influenced by the local languages, and the Arabic dialects continued to develop through the centuries until they became contemporary dialects. [1]

Contents

1 history

2 Classification of dialects

2.1 Division by region

2.2 The division between Bedouin and Hatra

3 silences

3.1 SAC

3.2 Gym

3.3 Interdental letters

4 A comparison between the questions in the different Arabic dialects

5 See also

6 references

History [edit]

It was thought that modern Arabic dialects descended from al-Fusha, but historical and linguistic studies since the nineteenth century have proven that it is a sister dialect to them, and both of them are descended from the primitive Arabic language. [2]

There were several dialects before and after Islam, and modern dialects developed from some (influenced by other languages), and some of them took a high position, and from which the classical Arabic, which was common in the Islamic era, was formed. We see this in several linguistic phenomena that were not considered eloquent despite their presence in dialects of before Islam, and are still present today, such as ruffles and the rhythm of the hamza.

A plurality of dialects was present among the Arabs from the days of the pre-Islamic era, when there was a dialect for every tribe of the tribes. The situation remained the same after the arrival of Islam. One of the most prominent reasons that led to the birth of different Arabic dialects in the past is that the Arabs were at the beginning of their era illiterate and were not linked to commerce, principality, or religion, so it was natural that it arose out of that and from the different situation and improvisation, and from the large number of dissolution and travel, and the influence of mixing and retirement, turmoil in Language is synonymous, and dialects differ in substitution, alienation, construction, and parsing. [3] Among the most prominent dialects and expressions are: otter otter, which means the heart of the otter, the jim, after the eye, and after the tense yaa, like a shepherd in which they say: thrilling. And in a chair like a cress, and Tamtamania of donkeys, which made “im” instead of “al” in the definition, and they say in the land: Amber, and in fasting is fasting, and Fhafhah this means making the haha ​​an eye, such as: He referred to him and they say higher to him, and Anana Tamim, which is the substitution of the eye in the Hamza If you fall at the beginning of the word, then they say in safety: Oman, and the ruffle of a lion, meaning that the kaf made a shin like “you,” and they say it: “Alish”, and a slow piece, which is the deletion of the last word, such as their saying: O Aba Al-Hassan, it becomes: O Aba Al-Hasa, and so on. Which separated the tongues and is about to divide the language into languages ​​whose people do not understand and whose origins do not converge. [3]

Communication between members of the same tribe was carried out using its own dialect, but when someone spoke or spoke to people from other tribes, then the common language was used. The situation remained the same after the arrival of Islam. It is likely that most of the modern colloquial dialects developed greatly at the time of the Islamic conquests, as a result of the migration of Arab Muslims and the mixing of their dialects with each other, and then their mixing with the new Muslims in the non-Arab countries (many of which became today from Arab countries), where they began to learn Arabic, but they - naturally - They could not speak it exactly as the Arabs spoke it, so Creole dialects were formed, influenced by local languages, and developed over the centuries until they turned into modern colloquial dialects. [1]

A number of researchers throughout history have studied the issue of the emergence and differentiation of dialects in the Arabic language, including the Tunisian historian Ibn Khaldun who described the reason for the emergence of dialects and explained the reason for what he saw as "corruption of the Arabic tongue" in his introduction (1377 AD):

Thus the tongues and languages ​​became from generation to generation and learned by non-Arabs and children, and this is the meaning of what the common people say is that the language is for the Arabs of course, that is, by the first queen that was taken from them, and they did not take it from others. Then this queen was corrupted to the detriment of their mixing with non-Arabs, and the reason for her corruption is that the young generation began to hear in the phrase about the purposes other ways than the modalities that were for the Arabs, so he expresses his intention for the large number of contacts with Arabs from others, and he hears the ways of the Arabs as well, so he got confused about the matter and took from these and these Then a queen was created and it was incomplete from the first, and this is the meaning of the corruption of the Arabic tongue.

Classification of dialects [edit]

The biggest difference between the Arab dialects is between the dialects of the Bedouins and the dialects of the people of villages and cities, and then between the dialects of the people of Hatra in the East and the dialects of the people of Hatra in Morocco. The dialects of colloquial Arabic now differ greatly in vocabulary, phonemes, grammar, and morphology (in vernacular dialects and not in the literal origin) For example, in the colloquial dialects of the Levant, the present tense begins with the prefix “b,” and the negation is by using “what” (I don’t know, you don’t know, what you studied, what you played, etc.). As for the North African countries, the suffix “u” appears and the two dialects are The Egyptian-Jordanian-Palestinian is a mediator between the two parties, as it uses the prefix “b” and denies it using the suffix “u” (Baarfash, Marahch, Maamlech, Maqlitch). [5]

Among the important phenomena: the similarity of the languages ​​of the Bedouin Arabs in the East and the Maghreb apart from the urban dialects in both regions. This also includes the similarity of the language's purposes and arts, and this is evident in the popular poetry of the Bedouins in both regions and the similarity of their general Bedouin heritage.

Arabic dialects are still easy to understand among most of them because the vocabulary is mostly similar. The Egyptian, Syrian and Lebanese TV production led to the spread of the dialects of these countries, and to some extent these dialects became understandable to the majority of the modern Arab generation.

The dialects differ in the pronunciation of qāf a lot, so it is pronounced “qāf” or “” for Bedouins in Libya and the Gulf, or “hamza” in Egypt and Syria, or “k” in the countryside of Palestine, especially in the Triangle region and the countryside of the West Bank, in addition to slight differences in the pronunciation of Dhad.

The Maltese language is considered one of the Arabic dialects, as most of it is derived from Arabic, specifically from the North African dialects. The Maronite Cypriot dialect Arabic is one of the languages ​​or dialects that are almost extinct (its speakers are only 130 people) and it is considered to be the most deviated dialects of Arabic from the mother tongue due to the entry of many Greek terms in it. [6]

The Arabic dialects in general are not written in an official capacity and have not been written throughout history except in modern times in Arab plays and song lyrics. The Maghreb dialect was also taught in Algerian schools during the French colonial period.

Division by region [edit]

The Arabic dialects are divided into five families according to the region: [7]

1. Nilotic dialects, also called the Egyptian dialects group, and includes:

The Egyptian civil dialect, including Alexandria

Upper Egypt

Sudanese, and generating languages ​​based on the Sudanese dialect were also formed, including Juba Arabic in southern Sudan and Nubian Arabic in Uganda and Kenya.

Chadian scattered among the Baggara tribes and its branches the Nigerian dialect.

This group sometimes includes the urban Hijazi dialect in Saudi Arabia, as it forms a mixture between the Nilotic dialects and the dialects of the peninsula.

2. Levantine dialects, which are divided into two branches:

1. Northern Levantine dialects in Lebanon and Syria:

Lebanese, which is divided into Beiruti dialects (according to neighborhoods such as the Ashrafieh dialect, the Basta dialect, etc.), northern dialects (the Tripoli dialect, the Zghartawi dialect, the Bashrawi dialect, the Koura dialect, the Akkar dialect, etc.), the southern dialect (Tire, Bint Jbeil, etc.) Beqaa dialect (Zahleh dialect, Baalbek-Hermel, etc.), Mount Lebanon dialect (Kisrouani dialect, Druze dialect, etc.)

Syrian, divided into: Damascene dialect, Homsi dialect, Aleppian dialect, coastal dialect, Mardalian dialect, Diri dialect, and Yabroudi dialect.

2. Southern Levantine dialects in Palestine and Jordan:

Palestinian, which is divided into: Nablus dialect, Khalili dialect, Jerusalem dialect, which is similar to or also includes the Bethlehem and Ramallah dialect. The northern dialect: which includes all regions of Galilee and Haifa, and the dialect of the Galilee region is similar to that of the people of Nazareth. There is also the dialect of the central cities of Jaffa, Lod and Ramla. Generally speaking, most of the Palestinian interior regions speak the civil Palestinian dialect, with the exception of the Triangle area, who speak the rural dialect of a special character. There is also a dialect of Ghazzi, and a Bedouin dialect spoken by the people of the Negev..

Lebanese, which is divided into Beiruti dialects (according to neighborhoods such as the Ashrafieh dialect, the Basta dialect, etc.), northern dialects (the Tripoli dialect, the Zghartawi dialect, the Bashrawi dialect, the Koura dialect, the Akkar dialect, etc.), the southern dialect (Tire, Bint Jbeil, etc.) Beqaa dialect (Zahleh dialect, Baalbek-Hermel, etc.), Mount Lebanon dialect (Kisrouani dialect, Druze dialect, etc.)

3. Iraqi dialects:

1. The Velet (Southern) dialects: The dialects of Muslims in southern Iraq have been influenced by the Bedouin dialects as a result of the Bedouin and semi-nomadic civilization under Ottoman rule after the eighteenth century, [8] including Al-Baghdadi, Basrawi, Amaratiyya, Nasiriyah and Anbariya, and Ahwazi in Iran.

2. Qilot dialects (Northern): These are the dialects of northern Iraq and the dialect of most Christians and Jews in cities in southern Iraq, including the Massawi dialect, the dialect of the Baghdad Jews, and the Anatolian dialects in Turkey, and the Maronite Cypriot dialect also branched out in Cyprus, which was greatly influenced by the Greek language.

4. The dialects of the Arabian Peninsula, and it is divided into several general groups:

A group of central and eastern dialects of the peninsula, namely:

The family of the Gulf dialects, including Emirati, Bahraini, Anazi [9], Hasawiya, Qatari, and Kuwaiti. In Iran, Ahwaz forms a mixture between the Gulf and Iraqi.

The family of the Najdi dialects spread in Najd, and among most of the Bedouin tribes in the desert of Levant, the Dahna desert and the Empty Quarter.

The group of southern dialects extending from the south of the Hijaz to Yemen, which are dialects influenced by the ancient South Arabic and Southern Semitic languages, including Yemeni dialects such as Adeniya, Tahami and Hadrami, and the dialects of the South Saudi Arabia.

Urban Hijaz, in the cities of central Hijaz, which is a mixture between the dialects of the peninsula and the dialects of the Nile.

Omani, and this dialect has left a great impact on the Swahili language as a result of the Omani rule of Zanzibar.

A group of dialects in the northwest of the peninsula, spread between the Bedouins of the northern Hijaz, the Negev Bedouins, and the Sinai Bedouins.

Bahraniyah among the Shiite Baharnah in the eastern peninsula.

Al Shahiya in the Omani Governorate of Musandam and the Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah.

5. Maghrebi dialects:

A picture of a Tunis Telecom poster with a mixture of classical Arabic and the Tunisian dialect.

Major Maghreb dialects:

Moroccan

The algerian

Libyan

Tunisian

Hassania

Andalusia

Desert

Pre-semicircular:

Mountainous

Jagelian

Sicilian (extinct)

Maltese

There are also dialects located in the east of the Arab world:

The Arabic dialects of Central Asia (including Afghani, Bukhari, Khorasani, and Qashqadari).

Sherwaniyah (extinct)

Creoles based on Arabic:

Arab Nubian

Arabia Juba

The division between the Bedouin and the urbanites [edit]

Main article: Bedouin dialects

The Arab dialects are divided into urban and Bedouin dialects, and this is a division indicative of the historical way of life, not the contemporary. Many Bedouin dialects are common in cities, and some characteristics of urban dialects are widespread in the Bedouin, such as the Chadian dialect. The differences between urban and nomadic dialects are more pronounced outside of Arabia. (11)

Examples of Bedouin dialects include: the Najdi dialect, the Bedouin dialect of the Levant, the Gulf dialect, and the Hassani dialect.

Examples of urban dialects include: the Egyptian dialect, the Levantine dialect, the Mosul dialect, the Bahrani dialect, and the Tunisian dialect.

Among the common differences between them are: [12]

Inter-dental silos (w, y, z): governorate in Bedouin, but in urban areas, they turn into gum silos such as TD, D and Z.

The letter Qaf: In Bedouin, it turns over a silent voice like گ, while in Al-Hadariyah it turns over or overturns a silent whisper, like a and a

Al-Tanween: It is located in Al-Badawiya in some places of the name, such as “Bint Zina”, and it is not located in Al-Hadariyah.

Plural pronouns: Bedouin preserves gender in the plural pronouns. For example, the pronoun “they” is used for the masculine and “they” for the feminine, and in urbanism the masculine is used for both sexes.

The passive for the inner unknown: they are the weights of the passive verb that do not add any letters to the original verb, such as the weight of a verb or verb, and it is located in the Bedouin, so it is said “The book was written”, and it is not located in the urban area. .

Verb verb weight of the past tense: It is located in the Bedouin, then it is said "I brought you", and in urban areas it is replaced by a verb weight, then it is said "Your input."

Qahwa Phenomenon: It falls into several Bedouin dialects.

Silencieux [modifier | Les dialectes arabes diffèrent dans la prononciation de plusieurs lettres, y compris al-Qaf, al-jim et les lettres entre al-Asaniyyah (Tha, al-Thaa et Zaha). [13] Qaf [modifier | La prononciation du qāf est divisée en prononciations et vocalisations, et c'est l'une des différences les plus importantes entre les dialectes urbains et bédouins, et Ibn Khaldun le mentionne dans son introduction: «Et que s'est-il passé dans la langue de cette génération arabe de cette époque, puisqu'ils venaient de leur propre pays en prononçant le qāf, parce qu'ils ne l'ont pas prononcé depuis la sortie du qāf des gens des régions, comme il est mentionné dans les livres arabes que c'est de l'extrémité de la langue et au-dessus du palais supérieur. Ce qu'ils disent aussi de la sortie du kaf, même s'il est plus bas par rapport à la position du qaf et ce qui le suit du palais supérieur tel quel, mais ils viennent au milieu entre le kaf et le qaf, et c'est présent pour toute la génération où qu'ils soient de l'ouest ou de l'est, jusqu'à ce que cela devienne un signe d'eux parmi les nations et les générations.Cela est pertinent pour eux, et personne d'autre ne peut le partager avec eux ... Il semble que ce qaf qui est parlé par les gens de la génération arabe bédouine est de la sortie du qaf au premier d'entre eux parmi les gens de la langue, et que la sortie du qaf est large, la première du haut du palais et le la fin de ce qui suit est suffisante. Le parler du haut du palais est la langue de l'Amsaar, et le prononcer de ce qui suit est Al-Kef qui est la langue de cette génération bédouine. '' La prononciation du qāf dans les dialectes modernes ne se limite pas à ce qu'Ibn Khaldun a décrit, mais se ramifie plutôt: [15] 1. Prononciation chuchotée: Q, qui est la prononciation de l'arabe classique, et se prononce ainsi dans les dialectes du nord de l'Irak, du sud du Yémen, d'Oman et des dialectes du Maghreb avant Hilal. Et tel est prononcé dans la plupart des dialectes dans certains mots empruntés à al-Fusha à caractère religieux ou officiel, tels que «le Coran» ou «Dhu al-Qi'dah». - Dans la plupart des dialectes de l'Égypte et du Levant, dans certaines villes du Maghreb et dans la langue maltaise. K. dans le dialecte paysan en Palestine, et certains dialectes bahreïnis, et l'accent maronite de Chypre. 2. Prononciation abandonnée: Dans la plupart des dialectes de la péninsule arabique, du sud de l'Irak, de la Haute-Égypte, du Soudan et du croissant maghrébin. C dans certains dialectes du golfe Persique, comme «Sharjah» → «Sharjah». Dz dans certains des dialectes de Najd, tels que "Iqlab" → "Idzlib". La salle de gym [modifier | 1.j, qui est la prononciation de l'arabe classique. Elle se prononce ainsi dans la plupart des dialectes de la péninsule arabique, de l'Irak, de la Haute-Égypte et du Soudan. 2. گ En Égypte et dans le sud du Yémen. 3. ژ au Levant et au Maghreb. 4. J dans le Golfe arabe et Hadramout. Lettres interdentaires [modifier | Plusieurs dialectes modernes ont préservé les silences entre Al-Asnaniyyah, que sont Al-Tha'al, Al-Zhal et Al-Zha. On le voit dans la plupart des dialectes de la péninsule arabique, de l'Irak, du Yémen, de la Tunisie et des Bédouins. dialectes. Comme pour la plupart des autres dialectes, les silences dentaires ont été combinés avec les silos dentaires (Ta, Dal et Dhad) dans la plupart des mots hérités, et on le voit dans la plupart des dialectes du Maghreb, du Levant, de l'Égypte, du Soudan. et les villes du Hijaz. En Égypte et au Levant, les silences se transforment entre les langues en celles des gencives frictionnelles (Sein, Zay et Zai) dans des mots empruntés à l'arabe classique, tels que des mots à caractère religieux, officiel ou littéraire. [16] Dans le dialecte bahrani et le dialecte de la ville de Hammamet, le dialecte de la ville de Hammamet fluctue Thaa par accomplissement, et dans le dialecte des Arabes Sarad en Turquie, la fluctuation de Thaa par Sada et Thaal ڤ et D اد est exagérée [17 ], et dans le dialecte des Arabes d'Ouzbékistan, le silence entre les dents fluctue en celles d'une langue frictionnelle. Par exemple (j'ai ajouté un pour indiquer le grossissement):

The Arabic dialects differ in the pronunciation of several letters, including al-Qaf, al-jim, and the letters between al-Asaniyyah (Tha, al-Thaa, and Zaha). [13]

Qaf [edit]

The pronunciation of the qāf is divided into pronunciations and vocalizations, and this is one of the most important differences between urban and Bedouin dialects, and Ibn Khaldun mentions it in his introduction: [14]

“And what happened in the language of this Arab generation of this era, as they were from the countries of their own in pronouncing the qaf, because they do not pronounce it from the way out of the qaf of the people of the regions, as it is mentioned in the Arabic books, that it is from the extremity of the tongue and above it from the upper palate. What they also utter from the outlet of the kaf, even if it is lower from the position of the qaf and what follows it from the upper palate as it is, but they come in the middle between the kaf and the qaf, and it is present for the whole generation wherever they were from the west or the east, until this became a sign of them among the nations and generations It is specific to them, and no one else can share it with them ... It seems that this qaf which is spoken by the people of the Bedouin Arab generation is from the exit of the qaf at the first of them among the people of the language, and that the exit of the qaf is wide, the first from the top of the palate and the end of the following is sufficient. Speaking it from the top of the palate is the language of the Amsaar, and pronouncing it from the following is Al-Kef which is the language of this Bedouin generation. ''

The pronunciation of qāf in modern dialects is not limited to what Ibn Khaldun described, but rather branches out: [15]

1. Whispered Pronunciation:

Q, which is the pronunciation of classical Arabic, and is pronounced thus in the dialects of northern Iraq, southern Yemen, Oman, and the Maghreb dialects before Hilal. And such is pronounced in most dialects in some words borrowed from al-Fusha of a religious or official character, such as “the Qur’an” or “Dhu al-Qi'dah.”

- In most of the dialects of Egypt and the Levant, some cities in the Maghreb, and the Maltese language.

K. in the peasant dialect in Palestine, and some Bahraini dialects, and the Maronite accent of Cyprus.

2. Abandoned Pronunciation:

In most of the dialects of the Arabian Peninsula, southern Iraq, Upper Egypt, Sudan, and the Maghreb crescent.

C in some dialects of the Arabian Gulf, such as “Sharjah” → “Sharjah”.

Dz in some of the dialects of Najd, such as "Iqlab" → "Idzlib".

The gym [edit]

1.j, which is the pronunciation of Classical Arabic. It is pronounced this way in most of the dialects of the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Upper Egypt, and Sudan.

2. گ In Egypt and southern Yemen.

3. ژ in the Levant and the Maghreb.

4. J in the Arab Gulf and Hadramout.

Interdental letters [edit]

Several modern dialects have preserved the silences between Al-Asnaniyyah, which are Al-Tha'al, Al-Zhal and Al-Zha. We see this in most of the dialects of the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Yemen, Tunisia, and the Bedouin dialects.

As for most of the other dialects, the dental silos are combined with the dental silos (Ta, Dal and Dhad) in most of the inherited words, and we see this in most of the dialects of the Maghreb, the Levant, Egypt, Sudan and the cities of the Hijaz. In Egypt and the Levant, silences are transformed between the tongues into those of the frictional gums (Sein, Zay, and Zai) in words borrowed from classical Arabic, such as words of a religious, official or literary character. [16]

In the Bahrani dialect and the dialect of the city of Hammamet, the dialect of the city of Hammamet fluctuates Thaa by fulfillment, and in the dialect of Sarad Arabs in Turkey, the fluctuation of Thaa by Sada and Thaal ڤ and Dاد is exaggerated [17], and in the dialect of the Arabs of Uzbekistan the silence between the teeth fluctuates into those of a frictional tongue. [18]

For example (I have added a to denote magnification):

النجدية

Mandarin

المصرية

المغربية

البحرانية

السعردية

الأوزبكية

This

هٰذا

دا

هٰدا

هٰدا

آڤا

هٰزا

Hit

ظرب

ضرب

ضرب

ضرب

ڤٚرب

زٚرب

three

ثلاثة

تلاتة

تلاتة

فلافة

فافة

سلاسة

Great

عظيم

عزٚيم

عضيم

عضيم

for example

مثلاً

مسلاً

مثلاً

مثلاً

Broadcasting

إذاعة

إزاعة

إداعة

إداعة

ليبيا

السعودية النجدية

المغرب

الجزائر

مصر

الأردن وفلسطين

الشامية

العراقية

السودانية

الحجازية الحضر

اليمنية والتهامية

تونس

الكويت

الإماراتية

الحسانية

البحرينية

البحرانية

العمانية

ليش/وشوله

وعلاش/عليش

عْلاش/لاش

عْلاش/علاه

ليه

ليش/لويش

ليش

ليش/لشو/لويش

ليه

ليه/ليش

لَمَهْ

عْلاش

ليش

ليش

أعلاش

ليش/شوله/شله

/لاويش

ليش

كيف/وشلون

كيف

كِيفَاش

كِيفَاش

إزاي

كيف/شلون

كيف/شلون

شلون

كيف

كيف

كيف

كيفاش

كيف/شلون

شقى/شقايل

اسم حالة/ كيف آش

شلون

شلون/جيفة (Ch)

كيف

متى؟

امته

وقتاشْ/فوقاش/ايمتى

وينتا/وقتاش

إمته

وينتا/ايمتى/متى

إيمتى/أمَيت

إشوكت

متين

متى

متى

وقتاش

متى

متى

اسم وقت/ أيْنْت

امته

مته

متى

وشهو/وشو/إيش

شني/أيش

أش/شنو

وشنو/شوالا/وشي/شتاهو

ايه

شو/ايش

شو/أيش

شِ/شِنو/شِني/شِنهو/شِنهي/شُنوّه/شِنيّه

شنو/ايه

ايش

ماهو

وشنو/وشي

شنو/شنهو

شو

شنهو

شنو/شنهو

ويش/شنهو

ايش

هل/يعني

هل

واش/وشنو

واش/وشنو

الضمير + [‡]

شي[چيف]

[‡]

-شْ[*]

واش

-إه[*]

كم

قداش/أبكم/ كم

شحال/مشحال/آش حال

شحال/قداش

كام

قديش/كم

قدّيش

إشگد/إشكم

كم

كم / قدِّ ايش

كم

قَدَّاشْ

كم/جم (Ch)

كم/جم (Ch)

كم

جم

جم (Ch)

كم